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CHAPTER 11: HEALTH & WELLNESS
I. What Affects Health?
A. Social Context, Biology, and Behavior. Combine to Affect Health
1. Biopsychosocial model
2. Causes of mortality: People are most likely to die from causes that stem from their own behaviors
3. Health disparities: Sex, race, life style. and ethnicity influence longevity
B. Obesity Has Many Health Consequences: BMI, overeating, genetic influences, stigma of obesity
C. Dieting is Seldom Effective and May Contribute to Eating Disorders: Restrictive dieting, restrained eating, and disordered eating
D. Smoking Is a Leading Cause of Death
1. Observation of attractive models of smoking leads many people to start smoking.
2. Social influence play a large role in starting to smoke.
3. Physiological dependence on nicotine may be related to genetics.
4. A new nicotine delivery system has become increasingly popular: e-cigarettes.
5. Quitting
E. Exercise Has Numerous Benefits: The more people exercise, the better their physical, mental, and cognitive health
F. Why are People Afraid of Flying but Not of Driving (or Smoking)?
II. What Is Stress?
A. Stress is a Response to Life Events
B. Stress Has Physiological Components: Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA axis); stress; the General Adaptation Syndrome
C. There Are Sex Differences in How We Respond to Stressors: Fight-or-flight; tend-and-befriend
III. How Does Stress Affect Health?
A. Stress Disrupts the Immune System: The body’s mechanism for dealing with invading microorganisms; lymphocytes
B. Stress Increases the Risk of Heart Disease: Leading cause of death; Type A behavior. pattern; Type B behavior. pattern;
hostility and heart disease; physiological effects of stress on the heart
C. Coping Reduces the Negative Health Effects of Stress: Primary appraisals; secondary appraisals; types of coping;
individual differences in coping
IV. Can a Positive Attitude Keep People Healthy?
A. Positive Psychology Emphasizes Well-Being
B. Being Positive Has Health Benefits: Positive emotions can predict better mental and physical health.
C. Social Support Is Associated with Good Health: The buffering hypothesis, supportive marriages, supportive friendships
D. Spirituality Contributes to Well-Being
1. Religious groups can help us maintain well-being through social and physical support.
2. Religion or spirituality helps us derive meaning and purpose in life.
E. Can Psychology Improve Your Health? Eat natural foods; watch portion size; drink alcohol in moderation (if at all); keep
active; do not smoke; practice safe sex; learn to relax; learn to cope; build a strong support network; consider your
spiritual life; try some happiness exercises
V. What are Health Psychologists?
CHAPTER 12: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
I. How Does Group Membership Affect People?
A. People Favor Their Own Groups: Formation of ingroups and outgroups; outgroup homogeneity effect; social identity
theory; ingroup favoritism
B. Groups Influence Individual Behavior. Social facilitation, deindividuation, group decision making, social loafing
C. People Conform. to Others: Conformity, influence, social normal, Asch study, Sherif study
D. People Are Often Compliant
E. Can Social Norms Marketing Reduce Binge Drinking?
F. People Are Obedient to Authority: Milgram’s famous study
II. When Do People Harm or Help Others?
A. Many Factors Can Influence Aggression: Biological factors; social & cultural factors
B. Many Factors Can Influence Helping Behavior. Prosocial behavior; altruistic behavior.
C. Some Situations Lead to Bystander Apathy: Bystander intervention effect
D. Cooperation Can Reduce Outgroup Bias: Robbers Cave experiment; shared superordinate goals; Jigsaw classroom
III. How Do Attitudes Guide Behavior?
A. People Form. Attitudes through Experience and Socialization: Negative vs. positive attitudes; mere exposure effect
B. Behaviors Are Consistent with Strong Attitudes: Ease of attitude accessibility predicts behavior. resistant to change
C. Attitudes Can Be Explicit or Implicit
D. Discrepancies Lead to Dissonance
E. Attitudes Can Be Changed Through Persuasion: Elaboration Likelihood Model
IV. How Do People Think About Others?
A. People Make Judgements About Others: Nonverbal behavior, attributional dimensions, attributional bias,
B. Stereotypes Are Based on Automatic Categorization: People may see illusory correlations.
C. Stereotypes Can Lead to Prejudice: Prejudice, discrimination, ingroup/outgroup bias, modern racism
D. Prejudice Can Be Reduced: Inhibiting stereotypes; perspective taking and perspective giving
V. What Determines the Quality of Relationships?
A. Situational and Personal Factors Influence Interpersonal Attraction and Friendships
1. Proximity
a. The more people come into contact, the more likely they are to become friends
b. Mere exposure effect
2. Similarity: People tend to like others who are similar to themselves
3. Attractiveness: Physical appearance is an important determinant of attraction
a. Rating of facial attractiveness is generally consistent across all cultures
b. Most people find symmetrical faces more attractive then asymmetrical ones
c. “Average” faces (the arithmetical average) are more attractive
d. What is beautiful is good” stereotype
B. Love Is an Important Component of Romantic Relationships: Passionate love, companionate love, attachment styles
1. Analyzing love: Romantic love (also called passionate love) and companionate love
a. Romantic/passionate love has been described as a wildly emotional state
b. When love continues past the romantic love stage, it transforms into companionate love.
2. Attachment styles
C. Staying in Love Can Require Work: Dealing with conflict, attributional style.
D. How Can Psychology Rekindle the Romance in Your Relationship?
CHAPTER 13: PERSONALITY
I. Where Does Personality Come From?
A. Personality Is Rooted in Genetics
1. There is overwhelming evidence that nearly all personality traits have a genetic component.
2. Research has revealed genetic components for particular behaviors:
B. Temperaments Are Evident in Infancy: Three types pf temperament; temperament differences between boys & girls
C. There Are Long-Term Implications of Temperaments: Socially inhibited children; children judged to be undercontrolled
II. What Are the Theories of Personality?
A. Psychodynamic Theories Emphasize Unconscious and Dynamic Processes: Unconscious influences; personality
structure; defense mechanisms; psychosexual stages; neo-Freudians
B. Personality Reflects Learning and Cognition: Internal and external locus of control; cognitive-social theories
C. Humanistic Approaches Emphasize Integrated Personal Experience
D. Trait Approaches Describe Behavioral Dispositions
1. Personality types: discrete categories of people based on personality characteristics.
2. Trait approach: focuses on individuals’ differences in personality traits.
3. Five-factor theory (OCEAN) (AKA The Big Five):
4. The Big Five emerge across cultures, among adults and children
5. The Big Five factors can be reliably discriminated based on patterns of brain activity.
E. Traits have a Biological Basis
1. Biological trait theory (Eysenck):
2. Behavioral approach and inhibition systems
III. How Stable Is Personality?
A. People Sometimes Are Inconsistent: Situationism
B. Behavior. Is Influenced by the Interaction of Personality and Situations (Interactionists)
C. Development and Life Events Alter Personality Traits
1. Individual personalities remain relatively stable over time.
2. The pattern of personality changes across ages holds in different cultures.
3. Change as a result of expectations and experiences associated with age-related roles, such as becoming a spouse
E. Culture Influences Personality
1. The Big Five personality traits are cross-cultural.
2. Cross-cultural personality differences do not necessarily match cultural stereotypes.
3. Differences between men and women:
IV. How Is Personality Assessed?
A. Researchers Use Multiple Methods to Assess Personality: Idiograpic approaches; nomothetic approaches, Projective
measures; objective measures
B. Observers Show Accuracy in Trait Judgments
C. What Personality Traits Should You Look for in a Roommate?
V. How Do We Know Our Own Personalities?
A. Our Self-Concepts Consist of Self-Knowledge: Self-awareness; self-schemas; working self-concept
B. Perceived Social Regard Influences Self-Esteem: Sociometer; terror management theory; importance of self-esteem
C. People Use Mental Strategies to Maintain a Positive Sense of Self.
D. There Are Cultural Differences in the Self-Serving Bais?: Interdependent vs. independent self-construals
CHAPTER 14: PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
I. How Are Psychological Disorders Conceptualized and Classified?
A. Views on Psychopathology Have Changed Over Time
1. Psychological Disorders as Maladaptive
a. Disorders are distinguishable from normal low points in life by severity & duration
b. Abnormal behavior. deviates from cultural norms, is maladaptive, is self-destructive, and/or causes distress
2. Psychopathology is Common in Contemporary Society:
a. About 1 in 4 Americans over age 18 has a diagnosable psychological disorder in a given year.
b. Nearly half of Americans will have some form. of psychological disorder at some point in life.
C. Psychological Disorders Are Classified into Categories
1. .Emil Kraepelin
2. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM): 1952 (DSM-1) through 2013 (DSM-5)
3. Categorical approach
4. Alternative type of evaluation, called a dimensional approach
5. A problem with the DSM-5 is that people seldom fit neatly into the precise categories provided.
6. Research Domain Criteria (RDoC)
D. Psychological Disorders Must Be Assessed
1. Assessment: structured or unstructured interviews, observations, self-report questionnaires, or other tests.
2. Neuropsychological testing: MRI or PET scans
3. Evidence-based assessment
E. Early Conceptions of Mental Disorders
1. Somatogenic hypothesis
2. Psychogenic hypothesis
F. Modern Conceptions of Mental Disorders: Psychological Disorders Have Many Causes
1. Diathesis-stress model of diagnosis
2. Biological factors: toxins, genetic factors, maternal illness, malnutrition, & neurological dysfunction
3. Family systems model: problems in individual indicate problems in family
4. Sociocultural model: psychopathology results from interaction between individual and culture.
5. Cognitive-behavioral approach: psychopathology results from learned, maladaptive thoughts and beliefs
6. Dependence on alcohol is much more likely in men; anorexia nervosa is much more likely in women G. Psychological Disorders Vary by Sex and by Culture: Cultural Syndromes
II. Which Disorders Emphasize Emotional States?
A. Anxiety Disorders Make People Apprehensive and Tense
1. Anxiety disorder
2. Phobias
a. Specific phobias are phobias directed as a particular object, like snakes or blood
b. Social Anxiety Disorder (formerly sometimes called social phobia)
3. Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD): the anxiety is not related to anything in particular
a. GAD has a lifetime prevalence of 6%, and it is seen twice as frequently in women than men
b. Patients with this disorder are visibly worried almost all the time
4. Panic Disorder and Agoraphobia
a. Panic disorder is characterized by recurrent, unexpected panic attacks
b. Panic disorder is often accompanied by agoraphobia
6. Development of anxiety disorders
a. Some fears/anxiety may be learned
b. There is also a biological factor
c. Psychological maltreatment in childhood is a risk factor for many anxiety disorders
d. Biased thinking
B. Unwanted Thoughts Create Anxiety in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders
1. The most common disorder in this DSM-5 category is obsessive-compulsive disorder
2. The obsessions come in many varieties, but common ones involve concerns about dirt and contamination
3. Obsessive thoughts produce anxiety; compulsions counteract this anxiety
4. Affecting 1-2 percent of the population, OCD is more common in women than men, and it
generally begins in early adulthood
C. Depressive Disorders Consist of Sad, Empty, or Irritable Mood
1. Major depressive disorder
a. Depressed mood or a loss of interest in pleasurable activities every day for at least 2 weeks
b. Major depression affects about 6-7% of Americans in a given 12-month period
2. Persistent depressive disorder
a. Persistent depressive disorder, sometimes called dysthymia, is of mild to moderate severity
b. Depressed mood most of the day, more days than not, for at least 2 years
3. Depression is so prevalent that it is sometimes called the common cold of psychological disorders.
4. The Role of Gender in Depressive Disorders
a. Women’s multiple roles in most societies may cause stress
b. Overwork and lack of support contribute to the higher rate of depression in women
5. The Roots of Depressive Disorders: Depressive disorders have biological, situational, and cognitive components
a. Biological: genes play role in inception – SSRIs, damage to the left prefrontal cortex
b. Situational: stressors play role in development
c. Cognitive: cognitive triad and learned helplessness play roles in development of mood disorders
D. Bipolar Disorders Involve Depression and Mania
1. Manic episodes last at least one week
2. Bipolar I disorder
3. Bipolar II disorder
4. Bipolar disorders are much less common than depression.
5. Causes of Bipolar disorders: family history, genetics
E. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Results from Trauma
1. For women, the most common such event is rape or physical assault; for men, it is military combat
2. Acute stress disorder
3. Post-traumatic stress disorder
a. The lifetime prevalence of PTSD is 7%, and women are more likely to develop PTSD than men
b. Symptoms of PTSD fall into four major clusters in the DSM-V
c. Some individuals are more at risk than others for developing PTSD
F. I think my friend might be suicidal: What Should I Do?
1. Understanding risk factors associated with suicide is an important step toward preventing suicide
a. People desire death when two fundamental needs are frustrated to the point of extinction
b. Just because a person wants to commit suicide does not mean she or he will be able to do so
c. Individuals who are most at risk of dying by suicide both want to do so and are able to do so
d. Suicide is a very complex psychological phenomenon
2. What to do if you think a friend might be suicidal
a. First and foremost, take suicidal threats seriously
b. Second, get help.
c. Third, let your friend know you care
d. Finally, try to help your friend remember that suicide is forever
III. Which Disorders Emphasize Thought Disturbances?
A. Dissociative Disorders Are Disruptions in Memory, Awareness, and Identity
1. Dissociative disorders are disorders that involve disruptions of identity, of memory, or of conscious awareness.
2. Dissociative amnesia: forgetting that an event happened or losing awareness of blocks of time
3. Dissociative fugue: loss of identity coupled with sudden and unplanned travel to another location
4. Dissociative identity disorder (DID):
a. occurrence of two or more distinct identities in individual
b. formerly called multiple personality disorder
c. Most people diagnosed with DID are women who report being severely abused as children.
B. Schizophrenia Involves a Split Between Thought and Emotion
1. Schizophrenia: a psychological disorder characterized by a split between thought and emotion
a. affects between 0.5 percent and 1.0 percent of the population has schizophrenia
b. characterized by a combination of motor, cognitive, behavioral, and perceptual abnormalities
2. Researchers tend to group symptoms into two categories: positive and negative
3. Delusions are false beliefs based on incorrect inferences about reality.
4. Hallucinations: false sensory perceptions that are experienced without an external source.
5. Disorganized speech
6. Disorganized behavior. is acting in strange or unusual ways
7. Negative symptoms are symptoms of schizophrenia that are marked by deficits in functioning:
a. apathy
b. lack of emotion
c. slowed speech
d. slowed movement
C. The Cause of Schizophrenia Involves Biological and Environmental Causes
8. Biological causes: genetics, mutations of DNA, primarily a brain disorder
9. Environmental factors
IV. What Are Personality Disorders?
A. Personality Disorders Are Maladaptive Ways of Relating to the World
1. Symptoms occur in clusters:
a. “A” cluster: “odd” (paranoid, schizoid, schizotypal)
b. “B” cluster: “dramatic” (histrionic, narcissistic, borderline, antisocial)
c. “C” cluster: “anxious” (avoidant, dependent, obsessive-compulsive)
B. Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) Is Associated with Poor Self-Control
1. Patients were considered on the border between normal and psychotic.
2. BPD:
a. characterized by disturbances in identity, affect, and in impulse control
b. often precipitated by history of trauma and of abuse
C. Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD) Is Associated with a Lack of Empathy
1. in which people engage in socially undesirable behavior, are hedonistic and impulsive, and lack empathy:
a. 1–4 percent of the population have antisocial personality disorder.
b. As many as 50 percent of prison inmates meet the criteria for antisocial personality disorder.
2. occurs in individuals with differences in brain functioning: slower alpha-wave activity, amygdala abnormalities
3. influenced by genetics and negative environmental factors
V. Which Psychological Disorders Are Prominent in Childhood?
A. Autism Spectrum Disorder Involves Social Deficits and Restricted Interests
1. Autism:
a. Characterized by deficits in social interaction, by impaired communication, and by restricted interests
b. approximately 3– 6 children out of 1,000 show signs of autism, and males outnumber females 3 to 1.
c. Autism spectrum disorder is new to DSM-5.
2. Core symptoms
3. Genetic component:
a. In addition to autism being heritable, it also appears that gene mutations may play a role.
b. Prenatal and/or early childhood events may result in brain dysfunction.
c. Exposure to antibodies in the womb may affect brain development.
d. People with autism have faulty wiring in a large number of areas.
4. Why Do People Believe Vaccinations Cause Autism?
B. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Is a Disruptive Impulse Control Disorder
1. characterized by restlessness, inattentiveness, and impulsivity.
2. genetic component.
3. may be caused by an interaction among brain differences, poor parenting, and social disadvantages.
4. adults with ADHD symptoms: about 4 percent of the population.
VI. What are Forensic Psychologists?
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