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Case center
MICROECONOMICS
Creation date：2024-05-27 15:21:43
Belonging category：经济Economics
MICROECONOMICS

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MICROECONOMICS

TOPIC 9
i. Monopolistic competition
ii.Oligopoly
AFTER LEARNING TOPIC 9, YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
1. Explain what is monopolistic competition
2. Understand the differences among monopolistic competition, competitive
markets, and monopoly?
3. Explain why advertising is prevalent in monopolistic competition
4. Explain what is oligopoly
5. Understand how game theory explains strategic behavior
6. Explain how government policies affect oligopoly behavior
MCD2020 2
MCD2020 3
COMPARING MARKET STRUCTURES
WHAT ARE SOME WAYS FIRMS DIFFERENTIATE THEIR PRODUCTS?
• Style or type
• Location
• Quality
MCD2020 4
• Perfect competition:
o Low prices
o Efficient level of output
• Monopoly:
oHigh prices
o Inefficient level of output
• Monopolistic competition:
o ?
MCD2020 5
DIFFERENCES AMONG THE THREE MARKET TYPES
MCD2020 6
MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION IN THE SHORT RUN
MCD2020 7
Since there is free entry and exit:
• If there are short-run profits, new firms
will enter.
o A firm’s demand curve will decrease
and become more elastic.
o Entry will continue until profits are equal
to zero.
• If there are short-run losses, new firms
will exit.
o A firm’s demand curve will increase and
become less elastic.
o Exit will continue until profits are equal
to zero.
MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION IN THE LONG RUN
MCD2020 8
LR EQUILIBRIUM IN TWO MARKET STRUCTURES - 1
• Perfect competition: P = MC.
oMonopolistic competition: P > MC.
oMarkup: P – MC.
• Perfect competition: P = min. ATC.
oMonopolistic competition: P > min. ATC.
• Scale and output
o Perfect competition: In the long run, a firm produces at minimum efficient scale.
o Monopolistic competition: In the long run, a firm produces with excess capacity.
MCD2020 9
MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION AND COMPETITIVE MARKETS
INEFFICIENCY AND SOCIAL WELFARE
• Is monopolistic competition efficient? No
o Two sources of inefficiency:
❖ATC is higher compared to perfect competition.
❖Markup: P > MC.
• Inefficiency here can be thought of as:
oReduced number of transactions (compared to perfect competition).
o Existence of DWL (compared to zero in perfect competition).
oHowever, this inefficiency is small compared to monopoly inefficiency.
MCD2020 10
WHY IS ADVERTISING PREVALENT IN MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION?
• Why do firms advertise?
o To change the demand for the product.
• Draws new demand. Demand increases (shifts right) in response to the additional
demand created by the advertising.
• The demand curve becomes more inelastic.
o Advertising makes a product more attractive to specific customers who are now more
likely to want it.
o Since demand is more inelastic, the firm has more market power and can increase the
price it charges.
MCD2020 11
• Perfect competition:
o Firms that advertise will have higher costs than rivals, without any gains.
o Advertising at the industry level.
• Monopolistic competition:
o Advertising can increase demand for single firm’s product.
oGains from advertising go to the firm.
oWant some pizza?
MCD2020 12
ADVERTISING IN DIFFERENT MARKETS - 1
• Monopoly:
o Advertising less likely since the product has no close substitutes and consumer choice
is limited.
oMay advertise simply to inform consumer about the product and stimulate demand.
• Sometimes, a monopoly may try to increase demand just by letting “unaware”
consumers know about the product.
• Other times, it may just be a “reminder” of the product
to stimulate demand.
• Think about diamond commercials around Valentine’s Day.
MCD2020 13
ADVERTISING IN DIFFERENT MARKETS - 2
• The paradox of advertising:
• Suppose Domino’s advertises.
• All else equal, its sales will increase, and it will be able to recover its costs.
• But, Pizza Hut will respond with its own advertising campaign.
• Net result: sales remain the same, but both firms have higher costs.
• Inspires brand loyalty:
• More inelastic demand,
• Raises prices to consumers.
Want to buy some pearls?
MCD2020 14
NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF ADVERTISING
$43 $300
MCD2020 15
OLIGOPOLY AND STRATEGIC BEHAVIOR
WHAT IS OLIGOPOLY
A market structure with
❖Small number of firms
❖With high barriers to entry, and
❖Often selling a differentiated product
MCD2020 16
COOPERATION VERSUS SELF INTEREST – AN EXAMPLE
• Two cell phone carriers in a small town: Horizon and AT-Phone.
• Each firm has excess capacity, so marginal cost of additional customer is
zero.
• Want to see how the outcome under duopoly compares to the competitive
and monopoly outcome.
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MCD2020 18
CELL PHONE MARKET - 1
Monopoly Outcome
Competitive Outcome
CELL PHONE MARKET - 2
Duopoly outcome:
• What do Horizon and AT-Phone do if they collude (form a cartel)?
MCD2020 19
Cartel Outcome
Why is this collusive outcome likely to fail?
Collusive outcome fails because:
• If AT-Phone believes that Horizon will maintain the agreement, they will
want to cut prices in order to be able to serve more customers.
• But if AT-Phone cuts their price, Horizon would want to cut their price as
well, to maintain their market share.
• So what price will each firm set? How many customers will they serve?
MCD2020 20
CELL PHONE MARKET - 3
MUTUAL INTERDEPENDENCE
• A market situation in which the actions of one firm have an impact on the
price and output of its competitors.
• AT-Phone’s response depends on the actions of Horizon, and Horizon’s
response depends on the actions of AT-Phone.
• Interdependence occurs in oligopoly due to the size of each individual firm.
• When one firm owns a sizable share of the market, the decisions made by
that one firm affect the market in a noticeable way and therefore affect the
decisions of competing firms.
MCD2020 21
• How many customers will each firm serve? What price will each firm
charge (In Tutorial)
• What we want to do is find a pair of outputs (customers), so that neither
firm has an incentive to change their output: Nash equilibrium.
MCD2020 22
CELL PHONE MARKET - 4
• Suppose a third firm enters the market, builds a new cell tower, and increases
supply. It is harder to maintain a cartel as the number of firms increases. Why?
• Two effects:
o Price effect: Reflects how a change in price affects the firm’s revenue.
oOutput effect: Occurs when a change in price affects the number of customers.
• With more firms, the market share of each firm gets smaller, and when the cheater
expands its output, the impact on the market price will be smaller
o Price effect is smaller relative to output effect.
• Cheating by smaller firms will have less of an impact than larger firms.
MCD2020 23
OLIGOPOLY - MORE THAN TWO FIRMS
• Game theory:
o Branch of mathematics that economists use to analyze strategic behavior of
decision-makers.
• Basic components of a game:
o Players, strategies, and payoffs.
• Games can be played simultaneously or sequentially.
• Prisoner’s dilemma:
o Two suspects are interrogated separately.
o Each has the option to testify or keep quiet.
MCD2020 24
HOW DOES GAME THEORY EXPLAIN STRATEGIC BEHAVIOR?
MCD2020 25
PRESENTING THE PRISONER’S DILEMMA
GAME THEORY
• Dominant strategy:
o A best response for a player to choose no matter what the other player
chooses.
o If each player has a dominant strategy, that makes up a dominant strategy
equilibrium.
• Nash equilibrium:
o Each decision-maker is choosing his or her best response to what the other decision-
maker has chosen.
o A pair of strategies, one for each player, so that neither player will want to unilaterally
deviate. This means that there is no incentive for either decision- maker to change what
he or she is doing.
MCD2020 26
MCD2020 27
ANALYZING THE PRISONER’S DILEMMA
TO DO IN TUTORIAL
• The prisoner’s dilemma captures the idea that cooperation is unstable.
• But firms do collude, and people do cooperate, so what’s wrong with our
analysis?
o It’s only played once. Most interactions occur over the long run.
o Players play a repeated game.
oCompare the short-run gains from cheating to the long-run losses you would
suffer if cooperation breaks down.
MCD2020 28
ESCAPING THE PRISONER’S DILEMMA
• So far all the games we’ve seen had a dominant strategy.
• We also saw that if both players have a dominant strategy, that outcome is
a Nash equilibrium.
• In many games, neither player has a dominant strategy.
• And in some games, there is either no Nash equilibrium or multiple Nash
equilibria.
MCD2020 29
GAME THEORY: SOME EXTENSIONS
MARKET STRUCTURES – FINAL COMPARISON
MCD2020 30
Price Taking
Perfect Competition
Price Making
Monopolistic
Competition
Price Making
Oligopoly
Price Making
Monopoly
Number of firms Many firms Many firms Few firms One firm
Market power Firms are so small
that no single buyer
or seller has ANY
control over price
Each firm has some
control over price
Medium-to-high
barriers to entry; the
firm has more
control over price
Extremely high
barriers to entry; the
firm has significant
control over price
Product/output Homogeneous
output
Product
differentiation
Output can be
homogeneous or
differentiated
The firm IS the
industry
Barriers to entry Easy entry/exit Weak/no barriers Strong barriers Very strong barriers
Other features Perfect information Long-run economic
profit not possible
Mutual
interdependence
Long-run economic
profit possible
Case category
Tag cloud
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CMP7000A CMP-7038B Math 263 LAW3016 CS371 STAT 334 FIN0008 ACC3004 STAT 371 ​COMP1921 MTH201 ACCT2000 UN3412 CIV6000 MATHS 3021 MATE7014 ECON1 CIBC6035 LAW121G COMM 321 CSC8204R TTM2033 CSCI 2600 MAE 115 LNG302 CENV6175W1 ECON30019 CPS2015 BST969 DDES9015 AMATH242 CS 1151 N1592 ACCT600 EG503G SMM519 EC318 Ecstatistics EEE 471 MARK2051 Topology COM00037H ACCT3000 MTHM501 EG501V COM00055H BUSN9085 GGR273 MATH 2B ITD102 MA214 ECON0060 ECE3114 ECMM447 Mechanics CCT361H5S BSAN3210 WELF2001 Fin3001 RESP5001 STA 137 Linguistics 101 CSCI368 CMPSC497 LUBS3655 OMBA 5355 BUSM2562 ​BFF5902 CYBR7001 CULT2005 ECON 7720 MTRX3760 FSE598 ​LUE1001 MGSC 7100 CS3240 COSC7500 ACCT3091 INFOGR TRAN 2080 DESIGN CIVE215001 CIVE2360 CPSC 8430 FNCE2003 Stoichiometry INFS6023 Quantitative Method Math 21D ECE5179 Design ​ECON8022 Chemical DMS 213 ADM1370 BFF5902 BFF2701 AGRI10051 AMN400 ECON7322 ​FINC5090 ​MATH1052 ​SciComp Elec4622 ​FINS5516 ENG 101 MMM143 CS431CA2 BSAN2201 EBSC7070 ES9v9-10 PLIN0009 DATA 8 MATH 101 BCPM0097 ​MAT 237 BISM2201 EEE8099 Physics 11 ECE2238B Biostat 234 ​ECON30009 INF10025 CHEM252 CCMA4008 CIVE 3007 STAT0031 ELEC ENG 3108 MGMT90140 CHEM 252 STAT3016 MMM095 ​MMGT6016 Legal STAT 311 ELEC9764 COMP 370 TCS 3053 EECS 1021 FIT1051 C/C++ EE3C COMP2003J COM398 COMP51915 Simulator FIN42330 8PRO102 PGD ELEC5160 XJCO1921 COMP5123M INFS 2042 CHE1148H ECA5313 IN3329 Microsoft Modeling B15 2TT COMP3687 COMP2432 DMS2030 KAN4TSF CFKG CSE 5322 CSE 445 STATS 3DA3 CHC5223 COMP1048 EL3105 EECS 3221 CS231 ME 4434 ITP4510 ITP4501 CSCI 5708 Controller EECE 5699 CPEN 231L CPN programs CSC8016 MATU9D2 ENGN4213 2. SVM. (10 points) Consider an SVM classifier using RBF kernel, and finish the following python code to search for the optimum kernel parameter γ. You are required to calculate the RBF function and search yourself, instead of using functions in Scikit-Learn (sklearn). def parameter search(gamma list ,Xtr,ytr,Xts,yts ,...): """ Parameters gamma list: A list of RBF kernel parameter gamma to search for Xtr: Training data, shape (ntr,nrow,ncol) ytr: Training labels, shape (ntr,) Xts: Test data, shape (nts,nrow,ncol) yts: Test labels, shape (nts,) ... Add other parameters as needed Returns: gamma optimum: The gamma with minimum error on Xts, yts """ ... return gamma optimum
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